本科英語教育畢業論文發表

　　隨著國際化趨勢的不斷加劇，並且在改革開放以來，我國的教育事業蓬勃發展，發生著翻天覆地的變化，英語教育的重要性日益凸顯，下文是小編為大家蒐集整理的關於的內容，歡迎大家閱讀參考!

　　篇1

　　淺析教師的專業發展對學生的影響

　　The main aim of Professional development is influencing the students' results. From the thesaurus of the Educational Resources Information Center ERIC database, professional development involves the activities that enhance the growth of a career professionally.This is effected by impacting the teachers level of practice and their level of knowledge Robinson and Carrington, 2002. With its implications on learning skills, professional development is beyond teacher training since it encompasses formal and informal means of assisting teachers in their development of new insights into their own as well as in the exploration of new and advanced resources that aid them in improving students performance. From the above statement it is clear that professional development requires the principals to support the teachers as they deal with the challenges that come along with new needs of their work. This support help the teachers to continually grow in their understanding of their nature of work as well as professional skills.

　　According to Fullan 1991, it has been observed that in the last decade, the role of a principal has been increasingly involving, become more complicated and the roles are not clearly defined. He also noted that the principles roles have been through a kind of metamorphosis. Initially, the roles of the principle were limited and involved instruction Leadership or a master teacher. With time these roles changed to transactional leadership and, most recently, to transformational leadership. This brings out the importance of examining the way principles deal with professional development of teachers, being one of the most pressing issues.

　　The extent to which the quality of professional development of middle school teacher is influenced by their administrators' leadership styles is not known. According to Jackson and Davis 2000, one of the most important components in accomplishing great achievements in schools and ensuring high quality teachers is instructional leadership. For a high achieving school, an administrator should be able to supply instructional leadership. To make this possible, the administrator should have specific leadership characteristics which ensure effectiveness in professional development of teachers and also heip in sustaining an educational environment that fosters high achievement vision in students Jackson & Davis, 2000.

　　In the past few years, middle schools have become more and more all-encompassing Hoy et al, 1996. In the American education systems, the notes being appear to be a replacement of the traditional junior high schools. According to the Maryland State Department of Education 2008,the academic, social and emotional progress of a student is greatly influenced and evident in middle school. This requires educators to be highly equipped when it comes to addressing the changes undergone by students in middle school and this makes the professional development of the teachers a very critical and sensitive process. According to Robinson and Carrington, 2002. In cases where progressive and extensive involvement of the schools administration and teachers is emphasized, their results of professional development are likely to be effective. During this stage, an adolescent's process of education is characterized by a change in the line of thought, and also developments which are both psychological and physical, and these changes may influence the student in terms of their achievement. For example in middle school, students have more academic responsibilities than in the elementary school. There is involvement in extracurricular activities and restructuring after school may be required. There is also a change in the educational environment which is brought about by the fact that the environment is more structured and not as nurturing as the elementary school environment. This means that the students have to adopt to the riles and regulations set and that they are held responsible for their actions. Therefore, it is very important to equip the middle school teachers with quality leadership skills as well as quality professional development so that they meet the advers social,educational and emotional needs of all their students. Maryland State Department of Education, 2008.

　　Most studies done on the impact of the principal-teacher relationship show that therea positibe correlation between supportive leadership style and the involvement and dedication of teachers.Theo Wubbel, Jack Levy, 1993. Leithwood and Montgomery say that the approval and a support of a teacher from the administrator were positively related to the satisfaction of the teacher. In a later study, leithwood 1990 repoted tjhat a principals support and the teachers professional development were highly correlated. It is therefore very important for the principals to be involved in the activities of the teachers so that they can be able to provide the support the teachers when they need. This will aid in motivatimg teachers which will improve their commitment amd this will lead to improvement of the performance of the teachers and consequently, the students.

　　Johnson 1986 noted that discovering the most important thing to teachers as well as motivating them to improve their work was a very complicated task and has not yet been figured out. He also wrote that the specific contribution of instructional leadership styles to professional development was not fully explored.

　　Stepans, 2001 stated that the role of the principal was to support the professional development activities appeared to be crucial ti the crucial professional growth of teachers since it assisted in its success. When there is a full discussion on issues and problems in a school between the teachers and the principal, the process contribute a lot in the carrer development and professional expertise.Hopkins 1990.

　　This study will discuss the specific characteristics instructional leadership styles necessary in the enhancement of quality professional development in middle schools. It will also look at the ways that the principals can try and motivate teacher by researching on what teachers find important and using it to motivate them.

　　The research is also geared towards the evaluation of the relationship between the characteristics leadership styles and the overall teacher performance and higher student achievement improvement in middle schools.

　　Further research may be done in order to evaluate whether or not the characteristics of leadership have a direct correlation to overall improvement in teacher performance and higher student achievement in middle schools.

　　Background of the study 5

　　Wiles 1983, notes that the quality of leadership that a principal exhibits determines the success of a school system. Previous research has been carried out to determine if there was a relationship between principals leadership styles and the teachers motivation. Brown-Howard's research carried out in 2007, identified the teachers motivation levels were determined by teachers by age, gender and experience. He also indicated that principals leadership styles has little to no impact on motivation based on the age, gender or experience of the teachers Brown-Howard, 2007. According to Raines 2004 the overwhelming responsibilities and demands of the principals professional positions are constant challenge. In this age of increased accountability, he adds, principals are expected to manifest exemplary performance in an ever-increasingly number of fronts. One such front is the area of professional development of teachers under their command.

　　Jurasaite-Harbison 2009 in a study of the way teachers learn it was found that teachers are put under immense pressure by the current edicational policies.thse pressurs involved the teachers having to concurrently modify their practices. For such changes to be effective, it is very important for the professional development to enlarge areas of scope so that it can capture a wider range of areas that are within their unique epistemology that is teaching resources and instructional practicesElmore, 2000. On the other hand, Jurasaite-Harbison 2009 stresses that for the reforms to to be a success, various learning opportunities continuous professional growth is necessary for the teachers. According to Jurasaite-Harbison 2009 Within schools context, this professional growth takes place under the schools administrators guidance and is part of daily workplace learning.

　　Other researches including Maehr and Midgeley, 1991; 1996; Maehr and Anderman, 1993; Maehr and Fyans, 1989 have come up with a considerable empirical evidence that suggest that the culture of a school can motivate both the teachers and students to learn by instilling a positive feeling in the teachers about their work. High achieving and motivated students as well as improved teachers attitude towards their jobs and collaboration amongst themselves are factors that are highly associated to a positive school cultureStolp and Smith, 1995. Research done by Sashkin and Sashkin, 1990; Sashkin and Walberg, 1993; Ogawa and Bossert, 1995; Leithwood, 1994 proposed that for a school culture to operate effectively and for its creation and maintenance, the principals leadership practices used are very important. Further, evidence obtained from several studies Leithwood and Jantzi, 1990; Sashkin and Sashkin, 1990 provides a strong base in supporting the suggestion that transformational leadership leads to relatively more desirable school cultures.

　　There are other concerns ot teaching teaching principals that have been focused on in research. These concerns are; inadequate professional preparation and support, inadequate time for instructional leadership, isolation, and few opportunities for career advancement Murdoch and Schiller, 2002. It was further discovered that principals are often overwhelmed and frustrated by the usual heavy workload and felt guilty about it to an extent that these frustrations adversely affect their family relationships and also their physical health. According toLashway, 2003; Lester, 2003; Wildy and Clarke, 2005 it was realized that most teaching principals lack the necessary skill to deal with the challenges, tensions and dilemmas that result from and those related to instructional leadership and management, the high system and local community expectations as well as personal and community values. However, Southworth 2002 discovered that success in principal ship came along with some significant development and growth in confidence and an individual' sense of self. These findings clearly show that a principles ability to cope and survive the challenges and trials of organization leadership helped in building their self esteem.

　　Findings suggest a positive correlation between principals' transformational leadership and the presence of school social organization associated with effective schools Evans, T.J 1996. Research studies strongly support the fact that the leadership of the school principal impacts directly on the climate of the school and, in turn, on student achievement Norton 2003. From these findings, it is evident that the leadership stlyles of a principal are very important in defining the success of a school and also that these styles describe the kind of climate that will be prevalent in the school.

　　Mickey 2000 in a case study of a middle school on institutional leadership found that the principal as an instructional leader used an approach to leadership that was systematic. According to more finding, the principals realize their roles' importance and use the position and positional power to in influencing change. The study also discovered that organizations that are successfully restructured insisted on and practiced shared leadership. As Mickey 2000 writes, shared leadership involves a lot of teamwork and collaboration between the principle and the staff and also among the the staff themselves. In this case, the principal has to realize the need for a safe and disciplined environment. From the case study it was revealed that in shared leadership, the teachers professional development was highly facilitated. From the principals point of view ,such professional development is perceived to be an important means to an end. The end results that were intended, implementation of change and teachers were found to be a useful vehicle of such change, as 'empowered leaders'. The study revealed that principals provided the teachers with extensive professional development to enable the them to be empowered leaders.

　　In 1995, a study by Kristine Hipp and Paul Bredson was published and it was about the relation ship betweenthe self efficacy of teachers and leadership styles of principals. The basic assumption of this study and two more that were done later Hipp 1996,1997 was that the leadership style of a principle and the self efficacy of teachers were linked directly. From this study, there was empirical evidence that connected the aspects of transformational leadership and principle teacher efficacy. This led to the conclusion that transformational leadership led to self efficacy of teachers.

　　The importance instructional leadership responsibilities of the principal has been emphasized in research doneBrookover & Lezotte, 1982; Duke, 1983; Edmonds, 1979 and Kroeze, 1984. On the other hand, according to Flath, 1989, literature has seemingly come to a consensus that instructional leadership is rare practice. Stronge 1988 found out that most time of the principal is concentrated on school management and only a few of their hours are allocated to program issues. In reference to his computation,62.2% was the time used in school management , and only 6.2% of the time was allocated to program issues. He adds that in a principals typical day, out of the many tasks carried out,only11% of those tasks is instructional leadership related. Berlin, Kavanagh, and Jensen 1988 say that for schools to progress ,principals should be able to plan their tasks in a way that their daily activities come in between their leadership role in the curriculum. McNally 1992 argues that there are certain middle-school principals who are effective but Fullan 1991 says that effective institutional leaders are a rare group to find.

　　The above cases try to identify the various attempts that have been made to explain and clarify the various relationships that exist between the principal and the teachers. Mickey 2000 case study that aimed at provide empirical evidence about a specific approach to leadership and the resulting effect on the teachers, this paper has not identified any study that focused on the leadership styles and their impact on quality professional development of teachers. The study therefore, by presenting empirical evidence, seeks to find the impact of administrators leadership styles on the professional development of teachers, focusing on middle schools.

　　In a study by leithwood 1990, it was conluded that a principals support and the teachers professional development were highly correlated.

　　Statement of the Problem

　　According to the Maryland State Department of Education 2008, middle school marks a significant change in the way in which a student progresses in learning. In order to equip the teachers to properly address the school students changes, their preparation needs to be extensively and professionally addressed. This is a stage where adolescents change how they think and view thinking, and there are also developments that are both psychological and physical and these changes influence the students achievements. Therefore, it is very important that the middle school teachers undergo extensive and quality professional development in order to meet the educational needs of the middle school population Maryland State Department of Education, 2008.

　　It is not known however, to what extent the leadership styles of middle school administrators have an impact on quality professional development of teachers in middle schools. According to Jackson and Davis 2000, the instructional leadership in middle schools is one of the most essential components to accomplish a high achieving school and quality teachers. This leadership in high achieving schools is supplied by an administrator who has specific characteristics which assist in effective professional development of teachers as well as the sustainment of an educational environment fostering a vision of highest student achievement Jackson & Davis, 2000. This paper therefore seeks to explore the link between middle-school administration and professional development and high student's achievement by addressing the following questions:

　　To what extent do leadership styles of middle school administrators affect quality professional development of teachers in middle schools?

　　Which specific leadership style or styles contribute to effective professional development for middle school teachers?

　　What are the experiences of middle school administrators during the process of teacher professional development?

　　Wiles and Bondi 1994 observed that most research carried out has been directed towards gaining knowledge about and understanding leadership styles. Yet, despite the considerable thought, extensive writings and a large body of empirical research, leadership remains a rather mysterious concept. This study is aimed at contributing greatly to understanding the specific characteristics of instructional leadership styles that have influence on the quality of professional development in middle schools. Further research may be carried out to evaluate whether thecertain characteristics of leadership have a direct or indirect correlation to overall improvement in teacher performance and higher student achievement in middle schools.

　　Purpose of the study 1

　　In 1995, a study by Kristine Hipp and Paul Bredson was published and it was about the relation ship betweenthe self efficacy of teachers and leadership styles of principals. The basic assumption of this study and two more that were done later Hipp 1996,1997 was that the leadership style of a principle and the self efficacy of teachers were linked directly. From this study, there was empirical evidence that connected the aspects of transformational leadership and principle teacher efficacy. This led to the conclusion that transformational leadership led to self efficacy of teachers.

　　Continued professional development of middle school educators and their quality preparation is imperative for middle school educators. Fo adolescents, this timeframe within the educational process is marked by changes in how student's think about thinking, as well as other physical and psychological development that may affect students' achievement. Therefore, it is crucial that middle school teachers receive quality professional development in order to meet the educational needs of the middle school population so that these students are prepared to progress from middle school to high school Maryland State Department of Education, 2008.

　　Findings suggest a positive correlation between principals' transformational leadership and the presence of school social organization associated with effective schools Evans, T.J 1996. Research studies strongly support the fact that the leadership of the school principal impacts directly on the climate of the school and, in turn, on student achievement Norton 2003.

　　This study will contribute to understanding the specific characteristics of instructional leadership styles that are most likely to enhance the quality of professional development in middle schools. This research will identify high achieving schools characteristics as well as the instructional leadership styles that contribute to their success as evident from the students achievement.

　　In a study by leithwood 1990, it was conluded that a principals support and the teachers professional development were highly correlated.

　　Rationale 2

　　This study will use qualitative research methods in the identification of instructional leadership of middle school administrators in the Guam school district. Guam,is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States. It is the largest, in terms of size, of the Mariana Islands. It also has an organized established civilian government DOI Office of Insular Affairs, 2007.

　　In the United states, education is to a large extent provided by the public sector. The federal government, state and local government. are responsible for the funding and the control of schools. It is compulsory for all children to attend primaryelementary school and secondary high school.levels. At these school levels there are locally elected school boards that se the school curricula, funding and teaching and these boards also have juriction over school districts. The School districts have distinct jurisdictions from other local bodies, and have independent budgets as well as officials. The governments are left with the role of making educational standards and standardized testing decisions.. Different states have different ages for mandatory school attendance, and mostly the beginning ages are five to eight and ending ages are between fourteen to eighteen. Increasingly, states are now requiring school attendance until the age of 18 years U.S. Network for Education Information: U.S. Department of Education.

　　Attending a public school, a state-accredited private school, or a certified home school program meets the requirement for compulsory education.. In most public and private schools, there are rhee levels of education;; elementary school, junior high school and high school. The junior high school level is the one that is usually referred to as middle school. Children are divided by age groups into grades, starting from the kindergarten for the youngest children in elementary school. The kindergarten is followed by first grade. The last grade is the twelfth grade which should correspond with the final year of school. However, the exact age range of students in these grade levels varies slightly from state to state U.S. Network for Education Information: U.S. Department of Education.

　　The entire island of Guam is served by the Guam Public School system. High rate of school dropouts and poor performance in test is a problem common in Guam Public Schools. Guam has a very diverse student body which includes many students from backgrounds that do not use the traditional United States education. In addition Guam's educational system has always faced other unique challenges as a small community located 6,000 miles 9,700 km from America mainland. The island went through an economic downturn in the mid-1990's and this led to the education problem Pacific Stars and Stripes, 1993; DOI Office of Insular Affairs, 2007

　　The U.S. Department of Defense initially partnered with the Guam Board of Education but in September 1997 the Department of Defense Education Activity DoDEA opened its own schools which were initially for the children of military personnel but later started serving the children of some federal civilian employees. DoDEA schools had an attendance of 2,500 in 2000. In Guam, there are three elementary/middle schools and one high school that are operated by DoDEA.http://

　　This study will discuss two out of the three middle schools on study in the Department of Defense Education Activity in Guam and which both are in close proximity. The participants are two male administrators with 35-40 teachers. One middle school is on a Navy base, while the other is on an Air Force base. Both schools follow the same district professional development, face to face interviews and observation will form the basis

　　Research Questions 1

　　According to Bennis & Nanus 2003 an organization a vision and the mechanism for translating the vision into a reality is given by leadership.. This study will examine the impact tht a principal's style of leadership has on professional development of teachers which is aimed at ensuring high achievement of students. The following research, grounded on the leadership literature, the educational institutions' organization culture-highly focusing on middle school and professional development. Specifically, the study will require answer to the following questions;

　　To what extent do leadership styles of middle school administrators affect quality professional development of teachers in middle schools?

　　Which specific leadership style or styles contribute to quality professional development for middle school teachers?

　　What are the experiences of middle school administrators during the process of implementing quality professional development?

　　Is there a relationship between the principals leadership stlles and teachers motivation?

　　If there is a relationship between the leadership style and teachers motivation, what is the extent of the relationship?

　　What is the impact of teachers motivation on their performance at work and also in their professional development process.

　　What is the impact of techers professional development on their performance and the performance of the students.

　　What is the impact of an schools culture on professional development of teachers and their relationships in the school.

　　Significance of the Study 2pages

　　According to the Maryland State Department of Education 2008, middle school marks a significant change in the manner in which a student progresses in learning. Quality preparation and continued professional development of middle school educators is imperative in order for middle school educators. For adolescents, this timeframe within the educational process is marked by changes in how student's think about thinking, as well as other physical and psychological development that may affect students' achievement. Therefore, it is crucial that middle school teachers receive quality professional development in order to meet the educational needs of the middle school population so that these students are prepared to progress from middle school to high school Maryland State Department of Education, 2008

　　Other researches including Maehr and Midgeley, 1991; 1996; Maehr and Anderman, 1993; Maehr and Fyans, 1989 have come up with a considerable empirical evidence that suggest that the culture of a school can motivate both the teachers and students to learn by instilling a positive feeling in the teachers about their work. High achieving and motivated students as well as improved teachers attitude towards their jobs and collaboration amongst themselves are factors that are highly associated to a positive school cultureStolp and Smith, 1995. From this research principals will know the importance of mitivating teahers as well as the ways that best motivate the teahers and student so as to improve the performance of a shool.

　　Research done by Sashkin and Sashkin, 1990; Sashkin and Walberg, 1993; Ogawa and Bossert, 1995; Leithwood, 1994 proposed that for a school culture to operate effectively and for its creation and maintenance, the principals leadership practices used are very important. The principals leadershot stles that are necessary in the creation and operation an effective school culture will be discusssed in this study.

　　Further, evidence obtained from several studies Leithwood and Jantzi, 1990; Sashkin and Sashkin, 1990 provides a strong base in supporting the suggestion that transformational leadership leads to relatively more desirable school cultures.

　　Southworth 2002 discovered that success in principal ship came along with some significant development and growth in confidence and an individual' sense of self. The study will also focus on a principals individual characteristcs that help them in their leadership of the school as well as in their role of proffesionaly devoloping the teachers. These findings clearly show that a principles ability to cope and survive the challenges and trials of

　　The importance instructional of leadership responsibilities of the principal has been emphasized in research doneBrookover & Lezotte, 1982; Duke, 1983; Edmonds, 1979 and Kroeze, 1984. On the other hand, according to Flath, 1989, literature has seemingly come to a consensus that instructional leadership is rare practice.

　　Findings suggest a positive correlation between principals' transformational leadership and the presence of school social organization associated with effective schools Evans, T.J 1996. Research studies strongly support the fact that the leadership of the school principal impacts directly on the climate of the school and, in turn, on student achievement Norton 2003.

　　篇2

　　淺析英語學習

　　摘要：The rapid development of electronics has promoted quick and steady renewal of PED. English learners should select PED properly, and use PED appropriately. It could be of great help to English learning if learners make full use of its advantages and avoid its disadvantages.

　　[Key words] electronic dictionary　PED　 English learning

　　[Abstract] The rapid development of electronics has given birth to a variety of palm-top electronic dictionaries PED for short which have come into popularity among English learners. PED, with its multiple functions, has brought great convenience and exerted noticeable influence on English learning. However, the improper use of PED also produces negative effects. Beginning with a discussion about the types and basic functions of PED, this paper examines its current use among English learners and mainly probes into how to use PED correctly and effectively to facilitate English learning. PED, with its limitations and drawbacks, could be of great help to English learning if handled appropriately.

　　1. Introduction

　　Since the late 1980s, the development of the electronic dictionary has become increasingly noticeable in China. Different types of electronic dictionaries, such as the compact disc dictionary, the online dictionary, the network dictionary and the palm-top electronic dictionary PED for short pour into market one after another. As a product of modern educational technology, PED has gained growing popularity since its advent. It is well received by English learners for its great convenience, quick retrieval and diverse functions. More and more students use PED, and some students have come to cherish it as an indispensable tool for English learning. The wide use of PED has exerted noticeable influence on language learning, which draws extensive attention. Beginning with a discussion about the types and basic functions of PED, this paper expatiated upon its current use among English learners and then mainly discusses how to use PED appropriately and effectively to facilitate English learning. PED could be of great help to English Learning if users bring its advantages into full play.

　　2. The types, basic functions and influence of PED

　　2.1 The types of PED

　　There are different criteria in classifying the types of dictionary. According to the number of entries it contains, PED can be classified into three types, that is, the big, the medium and the small one.

　　The big PED usually covers a vocabulary of over 300,000. With its big size and great capacity, the big PED is expensive and has multiple functions. It provides a detailed and comprehensive treatment for its headwords. There are convenient accesses to enquiry and intellectual processing as well. However the variety of the big PED is limited [1].

　　The medium PED has a vocabulary ranging from 200,000 to 300,000. Characteristic of a relatively big size and high price, the medium PED also has some auxiliary functions. According to the difference of functions, it could be divided into three grades, namely, the top, the medium as well as the low grade.

　　The small PED provides a vocabulary between 100,000 and 200,000. This type of PED is small in size, delicate in appearance, and low in price, with practical and easy-to-operate functions. Therefore the small PED has attracted a great number of users. It is the most popular one among these three types of PED.

　　2.2 The functions of PED

　　Compared with the paper dictionary, PED has some distinctive and incomparable functions. Though PED of different types and brands have diverse functions, generally speaking, most of them share the following common features.

　　2.2.1 Information retrieval

　　This is the basic and the most important function, without which, PED, actually any dictionary would become useless. Thanks to the development of technology, users can learn some knowledge about vocabulary simply by inputting some words at the retrieval entry. PED provides a lot of information about words, including pronunciation, word class, meaning, usage, register, grammar, examples and etymology, etc.

　　2.2.2 Information display

　　PED can present the enquired information on the screen instantly. Users can get what they want to know about a word, a phrase or an expression in a second. This function serves as a link between the user and the PED.

　　2.2.3 Pronunciation function

　　It is a function that the paper dictionary does not possess. Users can learn how to pronounce a word correctly with the aid of PED. This function is especially useful for beginners. Users can also record their own pronunciation and then compare it with the correct one installed in PED, thus helping improve their pronunciation.

　　2.2.4 Auxiliary functions

　　In addition to the fundamental functions, PED also provides some auxiliary devices. For example, many users can store some information in their PED. They can keep some newly learned words in the notebook in PED and review them regularly. Some PEDs provide vocabulary exercise, which is useful for English learners. Furthermore, most PEDs have the downloading function, through which users can get access to the abundant information on the Internet. And they can also play games and get some entertainment with PED. In short, PED enjoy many superior functions that cannot be found in the traditional paper dictionary.

　　2.3 The advantages and disadvantages of PED

　　As a product of modern educational technology, PED provides great convenience to English learners. It is becoming more and more popular among users for its incomparable advantages. However, because of the limitations of technology, there are also some undeniable disadvantages.

　　2.3.1 The advantages of PED

　　The most remarkable advantage of PED is its quick retrieval and high efficiency. Users can obtain the needed information about words in a blink of eyes. Compared with the traditional paper dictionary, PED can save a lot of time and effort. Owing to its small size and light weight, PED can be carried from one place to another and can be used at any time and in any place. Additionally, PED is usually based on the traditional paper dictionary which has a solid foundation of lexicography. Due to the large capacity, new vocabulary can be introduced into PED quickly. Theoretically speaking, it has an unlimited and infinite capacity [2]140. Moreover, PED provides lots of auxiliary functions. Many PEDs have download function and can be upgraded regularly. Users could amuse themselves by listening to music or playing games when they are tired. To sum up, there are superior advantages of PED with which the paper dictionary could not compare. It offers information, convenience, efficiency as well as entertainment.

　　2.3.2 The disadvantages of PED

　　Though PED provides great convenience to English learners, its negative effects have also become more and more visible. Most PED makers are not professionals but computer technicians without lexicographical knowledge. Some dictionaries declare that they cover hundreds of thousands of vocabularies, but actually they are the total sum of the several paper dictionaries that the PED contains. Many words, phrases and idioms overlap. Besides, the vocabulary information some PEDs provide is too limited. For example, some PEDs only give brief explanation of word meaning without examples; sometimes senses for headwords are ordered in an unscientific way. Furthermore, there are too many functions unrelated to language learning which may hinder rather than help. In addition, because of the small screen, PED can only show three to four lines of information one time. To find the necessary information, users have to downpage several times. Consequently, it may be a waste of time to use PED, especially when polysemic words are consulted. More importantly, frequent use of PED may breed over-dependence on dictionary. Students tend to overuse PEDs, therefore they would refer to it whenever they come across a new word without employing other strategies of vocabulary learning like contextual guessing. In brief, PED has its limitations and drawbacks, which might exert negative influence on users [2]138-139.

　　3. The current use of PED among college students

　　It is a undeniable fact that PED has gained great popularity among college and university students. An investigation on 251 non-English majors of Shanghai University shows that the ED owners are about 173, among which 134 students have PED. Namely, 57% students possess PED. While meeting new words in learning, 58% students would choose PED. 62% use PED when they meet words that they do not know how to pronounce. While reading or having classes, students use PED most frequently [3] 174-175. The writer of this paper has also done a survey on the current use of PED among English majors, and found that among 32 students, 19 have PED. 10 students plan to buy one, while 3 students do not intend to. Moreover, a majority, about 73% students regard it as an indispensable tool in English learning. They think that it is convenient, time-saving and labor-saving to look up new words in PED when they are reading, translating or writing.

　　Many investigations show that among all types of dictionaries, PED is also the one used most frequently. Lots of students become over- dependent on PED. When encountering new words, they would refer to it without considering whether it is necessary or not. Yet the words that have been consulted would be forgotten a moment later, so they have to look up them again. Moreover, they are content to learn a little about the new words [3]179-181. For instance, many students just look at the meaning of a word, ignoring other relevant information about usage, grammar or collocation. So they cannot master a word as a whole. In short, popular as it is, PED also brings about many problems. Therefore, it is of vital importance to probe into the appropriate use of PED. That is what the next session of the paper is going to discuss.

　　4. The use of PED in English learning

　　As mentioned above, PED has great impact on English learning, so it is necessary and important to learn how to use it appropriately and effectively to facilitate the learning process. A good user should know at least three points as follows:

　　4.1 How to choose a proper PED

　　4.1.1 To know about the needs

　　On purchase of PED, a user should first have a clear idea about his needs and then choose a type of PED according to his English proficiency. For a non-English major, it is suitable to choose a PED with a relatively small vocabulary and clear and concise definition. As far as an English major is concerned, it is necessary to choose a PED with a large vocabulary and detailed and exact definition [4].

　　4.1.2 To take into consideration the paper dictionaries installed in PED

　　It is necessary to pay much attention to the authority of paper dictionaries installed in PED upon dictionary purchase. At present, the installed paper dictionaries such as Oxford English Dictionary, Collins English Dictionary and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English are well received. Besides, the impression and content of the installed dictionaries should also be taken heed of. In addition, the publishing house is also a factor that needs considering.

　　4.1.3 To examine the quality of PED

　　It is advisable to take a quality paper dictionary when buying a PED. In order to examine the definition, pronunciation, usage, grammar and examples in the PED, buyers need to compare them with those of paper dictionary. A good PED should have detailed explanation about various categories of information such as meaning, grammar, usage, collocation and examples, etc. Furthermore, buyers should also take heed whether the PED has recorded the neologism to keep abreast with the development of language.

　　4.1.4 To choose a famous brand

　　PED is a product of a new industry. The market has been flooded with various PEDs some of which are good while others are inferior. The quality of some products by small workshops might not be reliable. With the development of market economy, these small enterprises are doomed to bankruptcy. Therefore, it is essential to choose those famous brands so as to guarantee the quality of PED.

　　4.2 How to foster a reasonable attitude towards PED

　　Recent years have seen an increasingly number of PED owners and users. PED plays an important role in English learning. Though learners know about some famous PED, they have little and equivocal knowledge about their functions, features and target users. Most users only judge PED by its convenience and functions, without considering other criteria such as informativeness, scientificness and its coverage [5]. They have not made full use of the information that PED provides. Consequently, teachers ought to instruct students to foster a reasonable attitude towards PED and use it appropriately and correctly.

　　With its advantages of small size, large capacity and easy use, PED becomes very popular among students, but at the same time, its negative influence has also come to be felt. The compilers might not work seriously and scientifically. Moreover, because of the limitations of the screen size, the information showed at one time is limited. Consequently, users should have a thorough understanding about the nature of PED. They should acquaint themselves with the merits and demerits of PED and thus develop a right perception about it. They should know not to wordship PED blindly and avoid over-dependence on or overuse of it.

　　4.3 How to use PED properly

　　The fast development and wide use of PED is definitely true. The efficiency of English learning is closely related to the use of PED. As a result, in order to increase the efficiency of English learning, learners must learn how to use PED appropriately and sensibly.

　　4.3.1 To use PED sensibly according to different language activities

　　In extensive reading, in order to read smoothly, learners may consult the meaning of new words with the aid of PED. However, it is not suitable for learners to use PED whenever they come across new words. They should first try to guess the meaning of words based on the context, morphology or common sense. To use PED too frequently will interrupt the reading process, slow down the speed and waste a lot of time, which are unfavorable for reading comprehension. In extensive reading, because of the necessity of further understanding the meaning of words, usage and collocation, learners had better use the quality paper dictionary rather than choose PED at any time. In writing and translating, learners can refer to PED for English equivalents, but they should be warned against word-for-word translation. They should know how to distinguish the fine difference between synonyms and discern the delicate shades of meaning. What is more, with the help of download function, users could make use of the rich resources on the Internet to broaden their scope of knowledge. In addition, the graded lexicon in PED could be used for exam preparation. The various exercise and vocabulary tests in PED can hopefully get students ready for CET 4 or CET 6.

　　4.3.2 To use PED, not to depend on it

　　PED can present the enquired information on the screen instantly. Users can get what they want to know about a word, a phrase or an expression in a second. As a result, they could save much time and energy. However, it is necessary to guard against excessive dependence on PED. In order to improve the efficiency of English learning, a useful dictionary is indispensable, but the point is that PED is no more than a tool. It takes time and effort to master a language. Diligence and practice is the key to the mastery of a language.

　　4.3.3 To use PED, not to abandon the paper dictionary

　　The definition and explanation of most PEDs is concise, the pragmatic meaning, grammar, examples and some other relevant information are quite sketchy. Because of the limitations of the screen size, the content of a dictionary entry could not be completely presented at one time. In comparing the different senses of polysemic words, learners would refer to the paper dictionary rather than PED [6]. When it comes to reading, translating or writing, learners should not choose PED only if discrimination of words is necessary.

　　All in all, from realistic and progressive perspectives, English learners should use PED to its advantages. In order to give full play to PED, users must incorporate learning contents, strategies and techniques into a whole and always bear in mind that the electronic product is only an assistant. The key to success is hard work and proper use of learning strategies [7].

　　5. Conclusion

　　The unprecedented development and exploitation of PED constitute a great shock and challenge to the paper dictionary. The rapid development of electronics has promoted quick and steady renewal of PED. English learners should select PED properly, and use PED appropriately. It could be of great help to English learning if learners make full use of its advantages and avoid its disadvantages.