英語醫學科普文章

　　醫學科普是科普知識和全民科學素質中的重要內容之一;而和諧醫患關係及公平合理調處並最大限度地防範醫療糾紛是構建和諧社會的一個重要組成部分。下面是小編帶來的，歡迎閱讀!

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　　人的壽命是否有極限

　　After celebrating her 60th year on the throne in style this pastweek, Britain's QueenElizabeth II can now look forward tobreaking some more records. She is already, at 86,Britain'soldest monarch were she to die now, her son wouldimmediately be the 12th oldest.On Sept. 10, 2015, she wouldpass Queen Victoria to become the longest-reigning monarchinBritish history. To beat Louis XIV who succeeded to the throneat the age of 4 for thelongest reign in European history, she would have to live to 98.

　　Elizabeth II is still going strong, but the maximum human lifespan isn't rising at anythinglike therate of average life expectancy, which is rushing upward globally at the rate of aboutthree monthsa year, mainly because of progress against premature mortality. Indeed, we mayalready have hitsome kind of limit for maximum lifespan -- perhaps because natural selection,with its strict focus onreproductive success, has no particular need to preserve genes thatwould keep us going to 150.

　　The oldest woman in the world, Besse Cooper, a retired schoolteacher in Georgia, will be116 onAug. 26, according to the Gerontology Research Group, an organization that studiesaging issues. That's a great age, but it's a hefty six years short of the record: 122 years and164 days, set byJeanne Calment of France in 1997. In other words, if Mrs. Cooper can getthere, Mrs. Calment'srecord will have stood for 21 years; if she can't, maybe longer.

　　That's a long time, considering that there are now nearly a half million centenarians alive intheworld. That number has been going up 7% a year, but the number of those over 115 isnotincreasing.

　　If Mrs. Cooper does not take the record, there are only two other 115-year-olds alive totake onthe challenge, and one of them is a man: Jiroemon Kimura, a retired postman fromKyoto. He'swithin seven months of beating the age record for his sex, set by ChristianMortensen, who died in 1998. But Mr. Kimura is less likely than a woman to make 122, andthere are fewer women over 115 today two than there were in 2006 four or even 1997 three.

　　At least two people died after their 110th birthdays in the 1800s, if you're willing to trustthe birthcertificates. So the increase of 12 years in maximum life expectancy during the 20thcentury wasjust one-third as large as the increase in average life expectancy during the period36 years.

　　In 2002, James Vaupel of the Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research in Rostock,Germany, startled demographers by pointing out that every estimate published of the levelatwhich average life expectancy would level out has been broken within a few years. JayOlshanskyof the University of Illinois, however, argues that since 1980 this has no longer beentrue foralready-old people in rich countries like the U.S.: Official estimates of remaining years oflife for awoman aged 65 should be revised downward.

　　Thanks to healthier lifestyles, more and more people are surviving into old age. But that isnotincompatible with there being a sort of expiration date on human lifespan. Most scientiststhink thedecay of the body by aging is not itself programmed by genes, but the repairmechanisms thatdelay decay are. In human beings, genes that help keep you alive as a parentor even grandparenthave had a selective advantage through helping children thrive, but onesthat keep you alive as agreat-grandparent -- who likely doesn't play much of a role in the well-being and survival of great-grandchildren -- have probably never contributed to reproductivesuccess.

　　In other words, there is perhaps no limit to the number of people who can reach 90 or 100,butgetting more than a handful of people past 120 may never be possible, and 150 isprobablyunattainable, absent genetic engineering -- even for a monarch.

　　在風風光光慶祝完自己登基60週年後，英國女王伊麗莎白二世Queen Elizabeth II現在可以期待打破更多紀錄了。86歲的她已經是英國曆史上最年長的君主瞭如果她現在離世，她的兒子就會立即成為第12位年長的君主。到2015年9月10日，她將會超越維多利亞女王QueenVictoria，成為英國曆史上在位時間最長的君主。要打敗四歲時繼承王位的路易十四Louis XIV成為歐洲歷史上在位時間最長的君主，她需要活到98歲。

　　伊麗莎白二世身體依然很硬朗，但人類最長壽命並不像平均預期壽命一樣在不斷增長，後者在全球範圍內以每年約三個月的幅度在增長，主要是由於對抗過早死亡方面取得的進展。的確，我們或許已經達到了某種最長壽命的極限，這可能是因為嚴格以繁殖成功為中心的自然選擇過程沒有必要特別儲存能讓我們活到150歲的基因。

　　根據研究老齡化問題的老年學研究組織Gerontology Research Group的資料，世界最長壽的女性、來自佐治亞州的退休教師貝斯·庫珀Besse Cooper將在8月26日年滿116歲。這是很長壽的年紀了，但是依然比世界紀錄小六歲多：122歲零164天，它是由法國的雅娜·卡爾芒JeanneCalment創下的紀錄。換句話說，如果庫珀能活到這個年紀，那麼卡爾芒的紀錄就保持了21年，如果活不到，可能保持的時間會更長。

　　這會是漫長的一段時間，因為目前全世界有近50萬百歲老人在世。這個數字在以每年7%的幅度增長，但115歲以上老人的人數並沒有增加。

　　如果庫珀沒有重新整理紀錄，就只有兩位在世的115歲老人接受這項挑戰，其中一位是男性：來自日本京都的退休郵差木村次郎右衛門Jiroemon Kimura。他還有七個月就將打破由1998年去世的克里斯蒂安·莫滕森Christian Mortensen創下的男性最長壽命紀錄。但木村次郎右衛門活到122歲的可能性沒有女性大，而目前超過115歲的女性兩位沒有2006年四位多，甚至還不如1997年三位。

　　從出生證明來看，19世紀至少有兩個人在110歲生日後逝世。因此，20世紀最長壽命12年的增長幅度只不過是同期平均壽命增幅36年的三分之一。

　　2002年，德國羅斯托克馬克斯-普朗克人口研究所Max Planck Institute forDemographicResearch的詹姆斯·沃佩爾James Vaupel指出，每次公開發布的對平均壽命趨穩水平的估計都會在幾年內被打破，這令人口統計學家感到吃驚。然而，伊利諾伊大學University of Illinois的傑伊·奧爾山斯基Jay Olshansky則認為，從1980年開始，在美國等富裕國家，這種規律已經不適用於已經進入高齡的老人了：官方對年齡在65歲的女性剩餘壽命的估算應該下調。

　　由於生活方式越來越健康，活到高齡的人越來越多。但這與人類壽命存在某種期限並不矛盾。大多數科學家認為，人體隨年齡增大而衰老本身並不是由基因決定的，但延緩衰老的修復機制卻是由基因決定的。對人類來說，幫助人作為父母甚至祖父母活著的基因有助於孩子健壯成長因而具備了選擇性優勢，但幫助人作為曾祖父母活著的基因可能永遠都不會有助於繁殖成功，因為曾祖父母在曾孫的健康和生存上可能發揮不了什麼作用。

　　換句話說，活到90歲或100歲者的人數或許沒有上限，但讓一大批人活到120歲以上或許永遠都不可能實現，沒有遺傳工程的幫助，人是很難活到150歲的，即便君主也做不到。

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　　15 Differences Between Positive People And Negative People

　　As you know, it is a drastically different experience being around positive people versus negative ones. If you are striving to be more positive yourself, here are 15 ways you can do so:

　　1. “Failure is part of learning.”

　　Positive people view failure as an opportunity to learn and get better. They understand that failure is an event, and doesn’t define who they are. Negative people are emotionally disabled by failure because they allow it to define who they are. They fail to understand that it’s part of the learning and growing process.

　　2. “I can do hard things.”

　　Positive people love to be challenged. They understand that there is no growth without struggle. Positive people embrace difficulty, and look for ways to overcome them. Negative people love the easy road. Because obstacles increase the likelihood of failure, they try to avoid them like the plague. To negative people, hard times don’t make you, they break you.

　　3. “I always give my best.”

　　Positive people focus on giving their best effort, regardless of the situation. They understand that there are many things they cannot control, but effort is not one of them. No matter what, the positive person strives to give their best — even if it isn’t much. Negative people want things to come easy to them. If they have to try hard, they believe they just aren’t good at it and give up. They are more likely to give their absolute best if they know people are watching them.

　　4. “She is inspiring!”

　　Positive people are inspired by the success of others, they look at those who are excelling and ask themselves the question, “What can I learn from them?” Negative people become jealous and threatened by the success of others. To negative people, when others succeed it means they are failing.

　　5. “What can I do better?”

　　Positive people embrace feedback. Because they are always striving to get better, they are open to learn anything that will enhance their skill set. Negative people get offended when they receive correction or feedback. Instead of seeing it as means to improve, they interpret feedback as a sign of their incompetence.

　　6. “I give power to what I focus on.”

　　Positive people focus on things they can control. They understand that their happiness is dependent on how they choose to respond to what happens to them. Positive people believe that they give power to what they focus on, so they use it wisely. Negative people center their focus on things they can’t control. For example, they ruminate over past conversations, beat themselves up on past mistakes, and allow their fear of the future to stop them in their tracks today.

　　7. “People can change.”

　　Positive people know that the only thing that doesn’t change is change. They believe that they can change, and that other people can change. Negative people believe that people are fixed; therefore, they don’t try to improve because they believe, “What’s the use?” Additionally, negative people don’t allow others to change. Once a negative person puts a label on something, it’s very difficult for them to see it in a different way.

　　8. “I still have a lot to learn.”

　　Positive people love to learn. They understand information evolves, and what used to work 10-years ago, might not be effective today. Negative people believe they know it all, and are less likely to welcome new information if it contradicts what they believe. They care less about what’s right, and more about who’s right.

　　9. “Let’s go big!”

　　A positive person isn’t afraid to swing for the fences because they don’t fear striking out. A negative person not only thinks small, but they also try to convince others that their dreams and aspirations are too big.

　　10. “Have you heard about [insert name]?”

　　Positive people build others up when they aren’t around. Negative people tear people down to make themselves feel good.

　　11. “I am my own worst enemy or best friend.”

　　Positive people have effective self talk. They are aware of the story they tell themselves, and don’t allow their own thoughts to discourage them. Additionally, they are realistic with their expectations. Positive people don’t feed themselves lies about their weaknesses or how difficult the situation is. Instead, they tell themselves what they need to do to succeed. Negative people are their own worst enemy. They struggle to see the bright side of anything, even if they are successful. They are also masterful at focusing on all the negative aspects, and diminishing their own confidence.

　　12. “What is my body saying?”

　　Positive people carry themselves like champions. They are purposeful in the way they interact with people and their facial expressions show positivity. Negative people carry themselves small. They hang their heads, and look down. Just by looking at them, you would think they are mad, sad, or indifferent — definitely not happy.

　　13. “Teamwork makes the dream work.”

　　Because they are team players, positive people will get behind and support ideas that are not their’s — even if they might disagree with it. Negative people have a hard time fully supporting ideas they feel won’t be successful. When an idea that wasn’t their’s doesn’t succeed, they are sure to give their teammates the “I-told-you-so” expression.

　　14. “What’s the bright side?”

　　Positive people have an attitude of gratitude. They can see the good in a situation, and don’t take things for granted. Negative people struggle to see the silver-lining in difficult situations. They don’t often take the time to stop and notice the positive aspects of a situation.

　　15. “You’re so good!”

　　Positive people like to spread positivity. They pay close attention to when others do well, and they are quick to tell them. Negative people say, “Why would I compliment people for things they are supposed to do?” What they don’t understand is, it’s not about the compliment, it’s about showing the other person that you notice them. A simple compliment can strengthen relationships and motivate the person to do even better. Positive people don’t underestimate the power of encouraging words.

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　　10 Things Our Dogs Teach Us About Healthy Communication

　　If a dog will not come to you after having looked you in the face, you should go home and examine your conscience.- Woodrow Wilson

　　The Humane Society reports that approximately 47% of U.S households own at least one dog, and when we refer to the dog as man’s best friend, we mean it so sincerely that according to clinical psychologist Dr. Suzanne Phillips, we treat our dogs better than our spouses: “What is interesting in my work with couples is that although couples may disagree vehemently on most topics, they usually both soften in tone and manner to agree that the dog, cat, bird, or horse is great.” As much as we love our four-legged, furry friends, they demand a lot of responsibility; they need food, shelter, medical care, and attention, but when they chew holes in our favorite pair of high-heels or toss their biscuits all over the newly-cleaned carpet, we forgive them.

　　The reason why we sometimes seem to develop stronger relationships with our dogs than with the humans in our lives is so simple that we easily overlook it. Dogs operate on the Golden Rule; they treat us the way we want to be treated, and we respond in kind. Here are 10 things our dogs can teach us about healthy communication in our relationships.

　　1. They don’t hold grudges

　　According to a recent study led by ethologist Johan Lind at Stockholm University in Sweden, dogs’ short-term memory span is approximately 27 seconds. This might explain why your dog has no recollection of that vigorous game of tug you just played fifteen minutes ago and insists on whacking you around the legs with his rope for another go at it. On the other hand, this can actually work to our advantage. No matter what we do, whether it’s coming home late from work, snapping at them for wanting to play fetch when we’d rather watch TV, or boarding them at the vet for two weeks while we go on a family vacation, they still love us. A dog will never turn his back on you or withhold a snuggle, even when every other human in the vicinity declares you to be the most unlikable person they’ve had to deal with all day. Our dogs know we aren’t perfect, and because of this, they forgive our mistakes. IF we can learn one thing from this, let it be to never let the sun set on our anger. Our dogs certainly never do.

　　2. They always remember to say “I love you.”

　　One of the things I love most about my dog is his demonstrative displays of affection; tail-wagging, nuzzling, and licking are all ways to let me know he loves me. More than this, I love that I never have to ask him for it. Not only does he forgive me for being an absolute pain in the butt which happens more often than I feel comfortable admitting, he reminds me that, however imperfect we are, we’re always worthy of love. Never miss an opportunity to tell a friend or family member you love them. It might be said that too much of a good thing is dangerous, but if we can learn anything from our dogs, it’s that this rule doesn’t apply to love.

　　3. They value quality time

　　Does your dog jump up eagerly every time he sees his leash or his favorite fetch toy? Does he nudge his nose between your hand and the laptop keyboard as you frantically type away, racing to meet a deadline? This is his way of reminding you that sometimes, work can wait. When we take fifteen minutes to jog around the block with our dogs or throw the Frisbee in the back-yard, we should also challenge ourselves to think about how we can transfer this practice to the relationships we cultivate with other people. Take a few minutes on your lunch-break to text your best friend and ask how her day is going. Stop by your girlfriend’s apartment after work with Chinese takeout and a bottle of wine and enjoy a few hours in her company. Time with our loved ones is finite, and since we can never know how much of it we have left, it’s a luxury we can’t afford to squander.

　　4. They always listen to our problems

　　I love those classic sitcom or movie scenes with an angst-ridden teenage girl, sitting on the porch with her Golden Retriever, asking why the boy at school whom she’s convinced is her soulmate won’t give her a second look. In response, the dog simply wags his tail and licks her face, as if to say, “Whatever. He’s an idiot. I still love you.” Your dog will never roll his eyes at you when you complain about a coworker for the tenth time or wonder why your ex still seems to have you dancing on a string. Your dog also won’t tell you to just cut the cord yourself and stop replying to his texts, because that’s not what you want to hear. He just offers his big floppy ears as a vessel for your frustrations without complaint.

　　Think about this the next time you find yourself serving as a sounding board for someone else’s problems. Pretend, just for a few minutes, to be your dog, as if you can do nothing but listen sympathetically and nod. Just don’t lick anyone’s face. It probably won’t end well.

　　5. They’re always happy to see a friend

　　Whether it’s been five seconds, five minutes, or five years, our dogs always greet us with a yip and a wagging tail. This likely has to do with that so-called short-term memory problem I mentioned earlier, but again, this works in our favor. A dog treats each time he sees someone he loves as an opportunity to rejoice and reunite. Imagine how much sweeter our interpersonal relationships would be if we treated each other that way.

　　6. They teach us about sharing

　　We share our food, our beds, and our spot on the couch with them, and never once do we complain. If we do, it’s a half-hearted complaint while the dog casually raises his head from his position in the middle of the bed, gives a look that, roughly interpreted, means “Yeah, right,” and goes back to sleep. WE share the spaces in our homes and our hearts with our dogs not under a sense of obligation, but simply because we want to. Our willingness to reach out to other people in our lives, physically and emotionally, can be just as rewarding because we have the mutually beneficial experience of sharing our resources and making a connection with someone who might one day return the favor. No one is meant to walk through life alone.

　　7. They force us to listen

　　In addition to being great listeners themselves, our dogs force us to listen in order to understand their way of communicating. The yips, the whines, the barks, and the howls are all nuances of the canine vocabulary, and we learn whether Sparky is happy, sad, frightened, or feeling threatened based on the tenor of his bark. We can similarly improve our communication with others just by listening to their tone of voice, learning to recognize shades of emotion that can help us to show more sensitivity toward one another’s feelings.

　　8. They teach us about trust

　　When we take our dogs into our homes, they simply trust that we’ll treat them with love and kindness. They trust that we’ll feed them, walk them, and care for them when they’re sick because, having been domesticated, they’ve learned to depend on humans for survival. In doing so, they hold us accountable. They remind us that we need to show others with our actions that we’re worthy of their trust and respect. I sometimes think that if people saw in me whatever my dog does, I’d have a lot more friends.

　　9. They remind us of the importance of physical contact

　　In this increasingly technological world, virtual is something of a buzz-word, but as convenient as having the world at our fingertips can be sometimes, it also eliminates a lot of the need for human contact. Even in the digital age, our dogs crave physical touch. They need pets, belly rubs, and scratches behind the ears as affirmation of our affection, and they reward us with licks and snuggles. Texts are great, but according to the National Institute of Health, our brains crave hugs. The release of oxytocin that hugs trigger creates feelings of pleasure by lowering blood pressure and stress hormones.

　　10. They teach us to read body language

　　While dogs communicate verbally by barking, they also use body language, much as humans do, to tell us how they feel. A wagging tail might indicate happiness, while a drooping tail and ears might indicate fear or sadness. I used to have a Labrador who would pace incessantly whenever he heard a crying baby. This was his way of alerting us to something unsettling that he knew required attention.

　　Recognizing these signs in our dogs’ nonverbal communication is easily transferable in our human relationships as well. Noticing posture, facial expressions, or hand gestures can help us to read between the lines in our conversations and gain a deeper understanding of each other’s emotions.